Friday, January 24, 2020

Phantom Limbs Essay -- Biology Essays Research Papers

Phantom Limbs Phantom Limb Pain (PLP) is a serious condition that occurs when a person who has lost a part of their body though amputation, trauma (brachial plexus), or loss of nervous connections in an appendage, perceives that the limb is still there and experiences sensations coming from this area. It was first described in 1866 by S. Weir Mitchell, an American neurologist, through a short story published in Atlantic Monthly. While Mitchell may then have wondered if this was specific to wounded Civil War soldiers, it has since been established as quite common (1). Over 70% of amputees report phantom limb pain for years after amputation (2). Several theories have been proposed regarding PLP, although there is still much to be learned and understood. Early physicians believed that phantom limb sensations were caused by severed nerves that fired randomly, sending signals to the somatosensory cortex re-creating sensations seemingly coming from the missing limb. However, this theory was soon disprov ed when surgeons tried unsuccessfully to eradicate these sensations by cutting the nerves leading to the neuromas, preventing the neuromal signals from reaching the cortex. Researchers then began to concentrate on the role of the spinal cord in PLP, but realized that paraplegics with completely severed spinal cords still experienced sensations where their limbs had been (5). Focus then turned to the brain and its role. Until the mid 1980's, it was widely believed that once neural pathways were placed during fetal development, these pathways did not change and were not altered in any recognizable way (3). However, recent studies have shown that the brain has a high degree of plasticity into adulthood, which allows it to continuall... ...opens the doors to looking at the neuromatrix and corollary discharge signals in the brain and the influence that these prewired expectations may have on the body, especially pain. These ideas are the key to providing long-term pain management for PLP patients. Works Cited: 1. Yang, Tony T., Gallen C., Schwartz, B., Bloom, F.E., Ramachandran, S. Cobb, "Sensory Maps in the Human Brain," Nature, vol. 368, 14 April 1994: 592-593. http://zygote.swarthmore.edu/axon6.html 2. Flor, H., Elbert,T., Knecht, S., Wienbruch, C., Pantev, C., Birbaumer, N., Larbig, W., Taub, E., "Phantom Limb Pain as a Perceptual Correlate of Cortical Reorganization Following Arm Amputation," Nature, vol. 375, 8 June 1995: 482-483. http://www.bfe.org/protocol/pro05eng.htm 3. Grobstein, Paul, Class Lecture. Neurobiology and Behavior. Bryn Mawr College. February and April 1998. Phantom Limbs Essay -- Biology Essays Research Papers Phantom Limbs Phantom Limb Pain (PLP) is a serious condition that occurs when a person who has lost a part of their body though amputation, trauma (brachial plexus), or loss of nervous connections in an appendage, perceives that the limb is still there and experiences sensations coming from this area. It was first described in 1866 by S. Weir Mitchell, an American neurologist, through a short story published in Atlantic Monthly. While Mitchell may then have wondered if this was specific to wounded Civil War soldiers, it has since been established as quite common (1). Over 70% of amputees report phantom limb pain for years after amputation (2). Several theories have been proposed regarding PLP, although there is still much to be learned and understood. Early physicians believed that phantom limb sensations were caused by severed nerves that fired randomly, sending signals to the somatosensory cortex re-creating sensations seemingly coming from the missing limb. However, this theory was soon disprov ed when surgeons tried unsuccessfully to eradicate these sensations by cutting the nerves leading to the neuromas, preventing the neuromal signals from reaching the cortex. Researchers then began to concentrate on the role of the spinal cord in PLP, but realized that paraplegics with completely severed spinal cords still experienced sensations where their limbs had been (5). Focus then turned to the brain and its role. Until the mid 1980's, it was widely believed that once neural pathways were placed during fetal development, these pathways did not change and were not altered in any recognizable way (3). However, recent studies have shown that the brain has a high degree of plasticity into adulthood, which allows it to continuall... ...opens the doors to looking at the neuromatrix and corollary discharge signals in the brain and the influence that these prewired expectations may have on the body, especially pain. These ideas are the key to providing long-term pain management for PLP patients. Works Cited: 1. Yang, Tony T., Gallen C., Schwartz, B., Bloom, F.E., Ramachandran, S. Cobb, "Sensory Maps in the Human Brain," Nature, vol. 368, 14 April 1994: 592-593. http://zygote.swarthmore.edu/axon6.html 2. Flor, H., Elbert,T., Knecht, S., Wienbruch, C., Pantev, C., Birbaumer, N., Larbig, W., Taub, E., "Phantom Limb Pain as a Perceptual Correlate of Cortical Reorganization Following Arm Amputation," Nature, vol. 375, 8 June 1995: 482-483. http://www.bfe.org/protocol/pro05eng.htm 3. Grobstein, Paul, Class Lecture. Neurobiology and Behavior. Bryn Mawr College. February and April 1998.

Thursday, January 16, 2020

Branches Of Biology Essay

Levels of Organization Why do we need to learn about levels of organization? Helps us to understand how our world fits together Helps us to organize the structures of living systems and how they all work together 1. Organelles – â€Å" little organs† – Small structures inside of a cell that perform a specific function. – Examples include mitochondria, nucleus, and Golgi body 2. Cell- Basic unit of structure & function in life. Cells are the building blocks of all living things. 3. Tissue – A group of the same kind of cells working together for a specific purpose 4. Organs – A part of an organism made up of tissues that do a specific job. 5. Organ Systems – A group of organs that work together for a specific job. 9. Organism – Any living thing. 10. Population -A group of the same organism living together. – This word is often used to describe the size of the group. 11. Community- Several populations living together and interacting in some way. 12. Ecosystem – All the biotic communities plus all abiotic factors. MEANING OF PHILOSOPHY The word philosophy is derived from the Greek words philia (love) and sophia (wisdom) and means â€Å"the love of wisdom.† Pythagoras was said to have been the first man to call himself a philosopher; in fact, the world is indebted to him for the word philosopher. It is said that when Leon, the tyrant of Philius, asked him of who he was, he said, â€Å"a Philosopher† and he likened the Philosopher to spectators at ancient games. Before that time the wise men had called themselves a sage, which was interpreted to mean those who know. Pythagoras was more modest. He coined the word philosopher, which he defined as one who is attempting to find out. According to him, men and women of the world could be classified into 3 groups: (1. those that love pleasure) (2. those that love activity) and (3. those that love wisdom.) MEANING OF PHILOSOPHY. Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems, such as those connected with existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Philosophy is the rational attempt to formulate, understand, and answer fundamental questions. NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY 1. Philosophy is a set of views or beliefs about life and the universe, which are often held uncritically. We refer to this meaning as the informal sense of philosophy or â€Å"having† a philosophy. Usually when a person says â€Å"my philosophy is,† he or she is referring to an informal personal attitude to whatever topic is being discussed. 2. Philosophy is a process of reflecting on and criticizing our most deeply held conceptions and beliefs. These two senses of philosophy— â€Å"having† and â€Å"doing†Ã¢â‚¬â€ cannot be treated entirely independent of each other, for if we did not have a philosophy in the formal, personal sense, then we could not do a philosophy in the critical, reflective sense. Having a philosophy, however, is not sufficient for doing philosophy. 3. Philosophy is a rational attempt to look at the world as a whole. Philosophy seeks to combine the conclusions of the various sciences and human experience into some kind of consi stent world view. Philosophers  wish to see life, not with the specialized slant of the scientist or the businessperson or the artist, but with the overall view of someone cognizant of life as a totality. 4. Philosophy is the logical analysis of language and the clarification of the meaning of words and concepts. . Certainly this is one function of philosophy. In fact, nearly all philosophers have used methods of analysis and have sought to clarify the meaning of terms and the use of language. Some philosophers see this as the main task of philosophy, and a few claim this is the only legitimate function of philosophy. 5. Philosophy is a group of perennial problems that interest people and for which philosophers always have sought answers. Philosophy presses its inquiry into the deepest problems of human existence. Some of the philosophical questions raised in the past have been answered in a manner satisfactory to the majority of philosophers. Many questions, however, have been answered only tentatively, and many problems remain unsolved.   Ã¢â‚¬Å"What is truth?† â€Å"What is the distinction between right and wrong?† What is life and why am I here?   Why is there anything at all? IMPORTANCE OF PHILOSOPHY 1. The study of Philosophy enables us to think carefully and clearly about important issues. 2. In studying Philosophy, we learn to take a step back from our everyday thinking and to explore the deeper, bigger question which underpins our thought. 3. The focus in the study of Philosophy is to learn not what to believe, but how to think. 4. Studying philosophy sharpens your analytical abilities, enabling you to identify and evaluate the strengths and weaknesses in any position. 5. It hones your ability to construct and articulate cogent arguments of your own. 6. It prompts you to work across disciplinary boundaries and to think flexibly and creatively about problems which do not present immediate solutions. 7. Because philosophy is an activity as much a body of knowledge, it also develops your ability to think and work independently. BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY Historically, philosophical concerns have been treated under these broad categories: 1. Logic, 2. Metaphysics, 3. Epistemology, 4. Value theory A. LOGIC Logic is the systematic study of the rules for the correct use of these supporting reasons, rules we can use to distinguish  good arguments from bad ones. Most of the great philosophers from Aristotle to the present have been convinced that logic permeates all other branches of philosophy. The ability to test arguments for logical consistency, understand the logical consequences of certain assumptions, and distinguish the kind of evidence a philosopher is using are essential for â€Å"doing† philosophy 12. B. METAPHYSICS Another traditional branch of Philosophy traditionally known as metaphysics. For Aristotle, the term metaphysics meant â€Å"first philosophy,† discussion of the most universal principles; later the term came to mean â€Å"comprehensive thinking about the nature of things.† It means, usually, the study or theory of reality. The question of metaphysics is: what is reality? What is real? Is reality some kind of â€Å"thing†. Is it one or is it many? If it is one, then how is it related to many things around us? Can ultimate reality be grasped by five senses, or is it supernatural or transcendent? Metaphysics undoubtedly is the branch of philosophy that the modern student finds most difficult to grasp. Metaphysics attempts to offer a comprehensive view of all that exists. It is concerned with such problems as the relation of mind to matter, the nature of change, the meaning of â€Å"freedom,† the existence of God, and the belief in personal immortality. 13. C. EPISTEMOLOGY The technical term for the theory of knowledge is epistemology, which comes from the Greek word episteme, meaning â€Å"knowledge.† In general, epistemology is the branch of philosophy that studies the sources, nature, and validity of knowledge. ï‚â€" There are three central questions in this field: ï‚â€" (1) What are the sources of knowledge? Where does genuine knowledge come from or how do we know? This is the question of origins. ï‚â€" (2) What is the nature of knowledge? Is there a real world outside the mind, and if so can we know it? D. VALUE THEORY Value theory is the branch of philosophy that studies values. It can be subdivided into ethics, aesthetics, and social and political philosophy. In broad terms ethics concerns itself with the question of morality. What is right and what is wrong in human relations? Within morality and ethics there are three major areas: descriptive ethics, normative ethics, and metaethics. Descriptive ethics seeks to identify moral experience in a descriptive way.  We seek to identify, within the range of human conduct, the motives, desires, and intentions as well as overt acts themselves.

Wednesday, January 8, 2020

Unit 522 becoming an effective leader a - 7806 Words

Task for Unit one - Becoming an Effective Leader Learner name: Section 1: Understand own ability to fulfil key responsibilities of the leadership role. An evaluation of my own ability to use a range of leadership styles, in different situations and with different types of people, to fulfil the leadership role. There are in essence, four core leadership theory groups [1], which are: Trait theories, Behavioural theories, Contingency theories and Power and influence theories. I strongly believe that a leader must be adaptable to the situation and therefore prefer the Contingency theories. I shall therefore use two contingency theories to illustrate my ability to fulfil key responsibilities of my leadership role. I will use two contingency†¦show more content†¦However the key focus is on the task, rather than developing the team per se. For this reason this model is particularly suited to a non-static team where teams are constructed for specific projects, rather than assigning the project to an existing team. Own ability to use the styles – Hersey-Blanchard model In 2004, I was requested by my then Head of Service to take on a severely broken team due to some significant issues. The team of six was responsible for managing and delivering the work of nearly 100 part time front line staff. It was headed by a senior team leader who had been in post for around 30 years and had moulded the team to her personal style. Anyone challenging the authority of the team leader was bullied mercilessly until they became compliant or simply left. The bullying even extended to life outside work. As a result of the approach, there was high turnover of staff and there was very little initiative amongst the remaining staff. Individuals were initially reported as being highly competent but later were blamed for things going wrong, shortly before they left. The team was very tightly knit and generally appeared supportive of the team leader.Show MoreRelatedGroup Norm Development and Leasership2364 Words   |  10 Pagesstudies, team member C, 21-year-old female in psychology studies, team member D, 25-year-old female in psychology studies and team member E, 21-year-old female in psychology studies who dropped the course during the third week. She was an aggressive leader who everyone feared; team member A decided to replace her role and as a result the group adopted a more fluid structure. The findings of this experiment were that the teams’ roles became more obvious, norm developed and the group became more interactiveRead MoreAncient Persian Society Sample Answers Essa y5585 Words   |  23 PagesSociety Kings Reigns Cyrus: 560-530 BC Darius: 522-486 BC Xerxes: 486-465 BC Artaxerxes: 465-425 BC What was Susa? Susa was originally the capital of Elam, located in a fertile agricultural area. Darius I is credited with transforming the city into the administrative capital for the Persian kings. It was accessible to Babylon, Ecbatana and the eastern parts of the empire. Identify three Royal Palaces in this period Susa, Pasargadae and Persepolis Who or what was Bel Marduk? Bel MardukRead MoreThe Meeting of Gut and Head Essay2470 Words   |  10 Pages stating that intuitive and rational decision-making are complementary. Simon (1987) made the notion that intuition does not operate independently of rational analysis, but rather both processes are essential complementary components leading to effective decision making. Combining both of these processes is known as the integrated style of decision-making (Sauter1999). The use of intuition alone may be challenging as there are many factors that manipulate one’s ability to use it (Mitchell et al 2005)Read MoreOrganizational Theory Integrative Term Project: Concepts and Applications8159 Words   |  33 Pagesinvolvement/participation hypothesis, and the adaptability hypothesis. She identifies and effectively discusses the need for a synergistic approach to managing cultural orientations, due to the increased importance of understanding and implementing effective cultures in today’s global mar ket. Damanpour, F. (1992). Organizational Size and Innovation. Organization Studies, 13(3), 375-402. Damanpour performs a meta-analytical review of how an organization’s size affects its ability to successfully adoptRead MoreClean Edge Razor4329 Words   |  18 Pagesexecutives at Paramount agreed Clean Edge should be priced in the super-premium segment of the market. However, some executives believed Clean Edge should be launched as a mainstream entry within that segment, with the broad appeal of being the most effective razor available on the market. Others felt a more differentiated niche strategy, targeting the most intensely involved super-premium consumers, would be optimal. Paramount had decided to launch this technologically advanced product into the men’sRead MoreClean Edge Razor4341 Words   |  18 Pagesexecutives at Paramount agreed Clean Edge should be priced in the super-premium segment of the market. However, some executives believed Clean Edge should be launched as a mainstream entry within that segment, with the broad appeal of being the most effecti ve razor available on the market. Others felt a more differentiated niche strategy, targeting the most intensely involved super-premium consumers, would be optimal. Paramount had decided to launch this technologically advanced product into the men’sRead More522 mentoring3582 Words   |  15 Pagesï » ¿Alisha Wall Unit 522 - Facilitate coaching and mentoring of practitioners in health and social care or children and young peoples settings 2.4 - Explain the different types of information advice and guidance that can support learning in the work setting 4.3 - Explain the support needs of those who are working with peers as coaches or mentors There are 8 key communication skills for effective coaching that would also apply to mentoring: listening, questioning, constructively challenging, seeingRead MoreCase 5 Essay13634 Words   |  55 Pages Frank Schultz, and Jeffery Thompson who assisted in collecting data during this eightyear longitudinal study of MMG’s integration journey. The case was prepared to promote class discussion and learning. It was not designed to illustrate either effective or ineffective management. Used with permission from Rhonda Engleman. both05.indd 511 11/11/08 11:37:27 AM 512 C A S E 5 : M I D W E S T E R N M E D I C A L G R O U P ’ S I N T E G R AT I O N J O U R N E Y journey within the Midwestern HealthRead MoreManagement Course: Mba−10 General Management215330 Words   |  862 PagesManagement Course: MBA−10 General Management California College for Health Sciences MBA Program McGraw-Hill/Irwin abc McGraw−Hill Primis ISBN: 0−390−58539−4 Text: Effective Behavior in Organizations, Seventh Edition Cohen Harvard Business Review Finance Articles The Power of Management Capital Feigenbaum−Feigenbaum International Management, Sixth Edition Hodgetts−Luthans−Doh Contemporary Management, Fourth Edition Jones−George Driving Shareholder Value Morin−Jarrell LeadershipRead MoreAussie Pooch Mobile 16986 Words   |  28 Pagescould handle alone, so hired assistants. The next step was to add a second trailer. Newly married, she and her husband, David McNamara, ploughed their profits into the purchase of additional trailers and gradually expanded until they had six mobile units. The idea of franchising came to Taylor when she found herself physically constrained by a difficult pregnancy: David would go bike riding or head to the coast and have fun with the jet ski and I was stuck at home and felt like I was going nuts, because